Employee Relations †Trade Unions Essay

In the early days of capitalism employers, in their struggle for maximum profits, were able to act with almost complete ruthlessness in their treatment of workers. They could take advantage of every rise of unemployment or inflow of immigrant workers to reduce wages to a bare minimum, using the lock-out if necessary to starve workers into submission. They imposed excessive hours of labor and ordered temporary extensions of normal hours without giving overtime pay. They employed workers in overcrowded and unsanitary factories and workshops, and exposed them to frequent accidents from dangerous machinery. They introduced new working processes and machinery at will, often replacing men by lower-paid women and children. Factory discipline was like that of a military force, and workers who ‘mutinied’ could be sacked and, by arrangement with other employers, blacklisted, so that they could not get work elsewhere. Employers accepted no responsibility for payment of wages during sickness, and workers sacked or disabled had to rely on their own resources. Trade unions were formed to resist these pressures. The basic idea was that, by combining together, workers could get better terms, protect individuals against victimization and provide payments out of union funds during strikes or lockouts. As the immediate consequence of successful union action was to reduce the employers’ profits, their reaction was predictable and they did everything they could to crush the unions. They got the government and Parliament to declare the unions illegal for organizations under laws carrying savage penalties. They declared that British industry would be ruined by the unions and the workers would become unemployed. They had the backing of the church and of most economists in their anti-union campaign, yet so desperate was the condition of the workers that unions went on being formed and operating. Unable to suppress them the government finally, in 1824, made them legal. Employers have come to learn that trade unions can be useful to them. Now only a few employers and eccentric capitalists are anti-union. Most employers, especially the bigger ones, including the nationalized industries and the government, accept trade unions as â€Å"social partners† whose joint task it is to see that industry runs smoothly and with a minimum of industrial trouble. Employers have had to come to terms with trade unions and strikes. In return for recognition (sole bargaining rights, compulsory union membership and sometimes the deduction of dues from wages and representation on various joint committees) trade unions are expected to keep their members in order and, if necessary, discipline them: for example, if they interrupt production by going on unofficial strike. Most unions in Britain today are prepared to accept such a deal. The question arises to what extent modern trade unions can still be regarded as democratic organizations, in the sense of being run by and for the workers. That the unions do provide a service for their members cannot be denied. What is relevant in this context is the extent to which trade unions are run by their members. Most unions have formal democratic constitutions which provide for a wide degree of membership participation and democratic control. In practice however, these provisions are sometimes ineffective and actual control of many unions is in the hands of a well-entrenched full-time leadership. It is these leaders who frequently collaborate with the State and employers in the administration of capitalism; who get involved in supporting political parties and governments which act against the interest of the working class. But it would be wrong to write off the unions as anti-working-class organizations. The union has indeed tended to become an institution apart from its members; but the policy of a union is still influenced by the views of its members. A union is only as strong as its members. For without their participation at the place of work, and without their willingness to go on strike or take some other form of industrial action, a union would be in a weakened position with regard to the employer. Although the First International lasted for only a few years it left behind unions in many countries which appreciated the need for international organization, leading in 1901 to the formation of the International Federation of Trade Unions representing for each country national federations like the TUC. At the same time international organizations were formed representing unions in particular industries, such as the miners, the transport workers, engineering workers, etc. The statutory recognition rights provided by the Employment Relations Act 1999 appear to offer substantial new legal support for trade unions in Britain. It is, however, far from clear how substantial this support will prove to be in practice, or how far it will alter the extent and conduct of collective bargaining. There have already been some broad-ranging analyses in anticipation of the legislation (McCarthy, 1999; Wood & Godard, 1999; Towers, 1999). Although the law increasingly acknowledges alternative forms of employee representation, the promotion of collective bargaining through a recognized trade union is ‘still the favored means of advancing the interests of both unions and workers’ (McCarthy, 2000). There are inherent difficulties in using legal sanctions to bring parties to the bargaining table; the 1999 Act, accordingly, holds the threat of statutory recognition in reserve for situations where the parties have failed to make provision for voluntary recognition. This ‘procedural’ emphasis means that, on close inspection, what appears to be a statutory right to recognition is in fact nothing of the sort. The Act is therefore likely to disappoint those who see it as the harbinger of a new right to collective bargaining. The new recognition procedure arguably makes more sense as part of a wider package of measures aimed at advancing ‘partnership’ at work. However, this is not necessarily consistent with the priority given to the recognized trade union as the preferred model of employee representation. The problem is not simply that the new law will have little or no impact on workplaces where union influence, while significant, is nevertheless far below the membership thresholds set for statutory recognition. Even where the union can show majority support within the relevant bargaining unit, the new law does little to promote an active, continuing dialogue between the parties. This is in contrast to the alternative ‘information and consultation’ model of employee representation which is found in various forms in mainland Europe and which has enjoyed, from time to time, the support of the TUC. This approach arguably has the potential to promote partnership based on dialogue in many more workplaces than those which will be affected by the new recognition law, and, indirectly, to widen the range of matters over which bargaining takes place. A natural assumption might be that the act of trade union recognition is clear-cut. A reasonable starting point would be that it is comparable with other acts of legitimation or authorization of status such as the granting of citizenship, or the granting of diplomatic recognition to a foreign government. By such actions governments provide access to a range of rights which are in principle both defined and enforceable and, furthermore, relate to third parties. Employers, however, are very different from governments. The rights that they can grant to trade unions are solely with regard to transactions with themselves, and do not normally bind third parties. As a result, in the context of British labor law, the definition and enforcement of these rights is both more private and more problematic. This elusive character of recognition rights has increased with the decline of industrial agreements in Britain. Forty years ago, the granting of recognition to a union would, for the great majority of workplaces, imply at very least conformity with the appropriate industrial agreement. With this conformity would come not only substantive rights to such things as pay and hours minima, but also procedural rights to union representation, both in individual disciplinary procedures and in collective procedures to vary the agreements. Today, with a few exceptions (such as in the electrical contracting, construction, and knitwear industries) such agreements have largely disappeared. They now cover only a small proportion of the minority of British employees who are still covered by any sort of collective bargaining (Cully & Woodland, 1998). For nearly 70 per cent of all those covered by collective bargaining, and for over 80 per cent of all those covered within the private sector, bargaining is conducted not by sector or industry, but at the level of the individual enterprise, or of some subordinate part of it (Brown et al. 2000). Bargaining at the level of the enterprise does not necessarily precede on the basis of formally defined recognition rights. The law does not require a recognition agreement to be in writing. Formal acknowledgement of a union’s rights often amounts to little more than the specification of its role in a grievance or discipline procedure, or giving it a named role in consultation procedures. There may be no written document indicating that a union has negotiation rights on specified issues. Even where a union plays a substantial role of representation and bargaining within an enterprise, there may be few clues to such an entitlement from anything that has been written down. Whether or not anything is written down, the status granted to a union by an employer is not a black-and-white issue. It is, as we see further below, a matter of degree. The depth of trade union recognition granted by an employer depends, in part, upon the scope of bargaining, which is another way of describing the range of issues on which bargaining is permitted (Clegg, 1976). Other aspects of the depth of recognition include the employer’s predisposition to make concessions during collective bargaining, the facilities that are offered to trade unions, the extent to which the bargaining relationship is formalized, and the extent to which the employer communicates with employees other than through union channels. The mere fact that an employer has granted union recognition tells one little about the practical value of that to the trade union in terms of effective collective bargaining. There are various legal concepts of recognition, the meanings of which depend on the purpose they are meant to serve. Recognition may be a passport not just to collective bargaining but to certain statutory rights. If an employer voluntarily recognizes a union, it comes under a statutory obligation to consult representatives of that union before making certain redundancies; where there is a transfer of the undertaking; before contracting-out of the state earnings-related pension scheme; and in relation to health and safety matters (Deakin & Morris, 2001). Recognition also entitles the union to claim disclosure of information for collective bargaining purposes, and entitles union members to time off for certain activities. In these contexts, ‘recognition’ refers to ‘the recognition of the union by an employer, or two or more associated employers, to any extent, for the purposes of collective bargaining’. Collective bargaining is defined as ‘negotiations relating to or connected with’ a range of matters grouped under seven categories and including, inter alia, terms and conditions of employment; the physical conditions of work; engagement; termination; allocation of work; discipline; trade union membership; trade union facilities; and machinery for negotiation or consultation (Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992, s. 78). It is sufficient that the employer negotiated with a union on any one of these matters for the union to be recognized in this sense. With the passage of the 1999 Act, an additional definition of recognition was needed, one which would identify those matters over which the employer would have a duty to bargain. Essentially, this means that the scope of matters over which statutory recognition arises are narrower than the range of matters which the law associates with the practice of voluntary recognition. Thus, the nature of the power relationship between the employer and the trade union will continue to be highly relevant in determining the scope and extent of bargaining, just as it was prior to the coming into force of the new procedure. There are several other respects in which the new statutory right to recognition is tightly circumscribed. In particular, an application for statutory recognition can only be lodged in respect of bargaining units over which there is not, already, a voluntary recognition agreement. More specifically, a union which is, itself, already recognized over any one of ‘pay, hours or holidays’ (emphasis added) (Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992, Sched. A1, para. 35(2) (b)) is apparently barred from bringing a claim for statutory recognition in respect of the relevant bargaining unit. Nor can a union use the statutory procedures to challenge a rival, incumbent union, unless that union is non-independent, and even then, the procedure for statutory derecognition is highly complex (Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992, Sched.  A1, Part VI). At first sight, the new procedure enshrines a right to recognition over pay, hours and holidays for unions which can show that they have majority support in the relevant bargaining unit. On closer inspection, this right is far from universal since it only arises in respect of bargaining units where either no union is recognized or where the matters over which recognition has been conceded do not cover any part of the statutory core of ‘pay, hours and holidays’. Moreover, it is in essence a right to invoke a procedure rather than a right to achieve a particular outcome. An employer can avoid the imposition of a statutory order by making a voluntary agreement at one of a number of stages within the recognition procedure. If this occurs, the union can hold out for bargaining over the statutory core, knowing that, if it can show majority support in a ballot or otherwise, the CAC must grant it a declaration of statutory recognition. However, the content of statutory recognition is then dependent on the remedies which are made available against a recalcitrant employer.

Language Research Essay

It is true that Northrop Frye’s ideas about the way we speak and the function and levels of our language gives us something to think about and brings up the question of why different languages present such huge problems when there is a language barrier between those who are trying to communicate. Northrop demonstrates his own ideas about how to communicate better as he talks about language on a societal, individual and worldwide level. For those who have only spoken one language their entire life, to be presented with a new language can be thoroughly frustrating and confusing. One language can be so different from the other and trying to speak a new language can take a huge amount of time in studying the pronunciation of new words and trying to relay them to others with the same rhythm that they speak. A good example of the frustration and confusion of a language barrier, I witnessed in a shopping mall. The foreigner was trying so hard to get their message across to the sales clerk and only ended up leaving the store with disappointment. I noticed that the foreigner spoke slowly and tried to pronounce their words slowly and clearly as the sales associate just spoke in their usual manner and not putting any effort into speaking more slowly and clearly or even trying to use other, more simpler words which would have helped the foreigner, tremendously. Instead of opting to try other methods of communicating, the clerk only let the customer leave without hesitation. It seemed that the associate would rather lose money for the company, let the customer leave with frustration and avoid the entire incident, completely, rather than finding a better way to communicate. Another example of a racial language barrier, I witnessed at a gas station. This time the foreigner spoke loudly and quickly and the group in our immediate area only looked away or stared at the individual as if they were saying nothing at all. The foreigner this time, forgot to find a better way to communicate. I wondered if there was an emergency or a problem with this person that needed immediate attention from the people around, since they seemed desperate and frightened. There was not a single person in the area that spoke the same language as the person rambled on about something that we had no idea what they were speaking about. To me, this language barrier was extremely frustrating, as well and I felt bad that I couldn’t understand the message they were trying so hard to convey. They left the scene, without any help, just as the individual in the shopping mall who wasn’t able to communicate clearly enough and who didn’t have the proper listener who was willing to use a different method for communicating. In order to break the language barrier, it is so important that we learn to adapt to other cultures and become more patient and educated for different languages to be used and understood. Newcomers to a region are not always equipped with the proper language skills that they need to function properly in society and it is important for them to study the new language and practice for success in speaking the new language. They must learn to achieve goals by listening to people talk and adapting to the new speech. It will take patience and tolerance in learning the new language and with this in mind, they will become good speakers and will also be capable of learning to speak the language which will end the constant frustration and confusion.

Surveying Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Surveying - Essay Example Alternatively, the information in this case will be used in adding, changing, removing and designing new space that will be in use in future. In doing the construction project, the construction team experienced various challenges, which generally delayed the project. The two main challenges that the team faced were the problems to do with the construction instruments and the environmental issues. Generally, accurate surveying requires a clear space between the target and the surveyor. In this case, the only time that was available for the construction team was from mid-day to 3:00 pm. While doing their work, the construction team had to deal with a hostile environment where they experienced non-stop flow of cyclists and walkers. This created a stressful working environment for the team. For effective work at the facility, the team had to request people frequently to wait for them to complete certain measurements at the facility. Despite all the obstacles experienced by the constructi on team at the facility, the program went on successfully without further delays. Other challenges that the construction team experienced during the project was ensuring the measurements were precise especially while making use of the total station equipment and while viewing through the prism. This was because the level concrete foundation was not perfect. In engineering and construction, there is a general rule that it is always important to ensure that the total leveling station is accurate and perfect. Extra attention and adjustments in this case had to be calculated outside since the data was displayed in order to be interpreted effectively so that the construction team can be able to obtain the exact measurements. Some of the equipment that the construction project utilized included a measuring tape, total station with prism, chalk, safety vests and colored

Columbia Sportswear Stock Analysis Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Columbia Sportswear Stock Analysis - Case Study Example Columbia Sportswear Company manufactures outwear including those meant for sports activities. The company is based in the United States and was started by Paul Lamfrom in 1938 who is the father of the Gert Boyle the current chairperson. Headquartered in Cedar Mill Oregon, Columbia Sportswear produces footwear, camping equipment, headgear, outerwear and skiwear having proved the highest seller of skiwear in America in the year 2001. The company has developed an international reputation through which it has managed to conduct their sales on an international platform developing their products more on quality standards, performance pact high functionality and giving value for money to the customers. The company deals with the designing of the products, their marketing and the distribution to the different markets that they create. The company has existed since 1938 amassing experience creating wisdom in business running. With more than 70 years in business, the company is in position to make viable decisions on product development with a mission to design and ensure delivery of authentic outdoor products of high value for all active consumers with no regard to ages. The company prides in understanding the needs of the customer well making products that keep customers comfortable and achieve protection from the different environmental effects or weather conditions. They provide products that can lead the market and help the customers achieve their market needs. The business started as a family business that developed slowly to reach the global market after the purchase of a small company Columbia Hat Company turning into today’s huge company Columbia Sportswear (Columbia History). This means that the current assets are in position to cover all the current liabilities of the company 4.15 times which means the company has a reasonable working capital that can take care of the business needs of the company. Working capital is

Changes in Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Changes in Management - Assignment Example e way of functionality of an organization, the management process comprises five significant functions that encompass coordinating, directing, staffing, planning and organizing. With the dramatic change in the current competitive business world and the process through which different organizations belonging to diverse industry operate, it can be stated that the management functions play a decisive part at large. However, with respect to the aforesaid scenario, it can be affirmed that the process through which company recruits its employee i.e. the function of staffing would experience the most dramatic change out of the above stated management functions. This can be justified with reference to the fact that there exists the prevalence of extreme business market competition in this present day context making this particular management function to be changed in the next decade (Tripathi 3-7). On the other hand, the management task or the function of ‘directing’ would have least change as the function is basically related with the process of motivating, leading and directing the employees of various organizations making the organizations more result-oriented (Tripathi

Extended Essay in Business and Management for the IB diploma

Extended in Business and Management for the IB diploma - Essay Example . The moÃ'•t critical iÃ'•Ã'•ue facing adidaÃ'• iÃ'• itÃ'• effort to turn around Reebok. The company bought Reebok for $3.8 billion 2006, a move criticized by many analyÃ'•tÃ'• aÃ'• being too expenÃ'•ive. The company iÃ'• working to change cuÃ'•tomerÃ'• perception Reebok from that of a diÃ'•count Ã'•hoe brand to a premium brand. AÃ'• part of theÃ'•e effortÃ'•, the company haÃ'• Ã'•witched the Reebok wholeÃ'•ale model from bulk pre-order to pay aÃ'• you go. WholeÃ'•ale cuÃ'•tomerÃ'• like Footlocker now order Reebok Ã'•hoeÃ'• aÃ'• they need them rather than ordering them in bulk. ThiÃ'• makeÃ'• it leÃ'•Ã'• likely that larger retailerÃ'• will diÃ'•count Reebok Ã'•hoeÃ'• in order to clear their inventorieÃ'•. AdidaÃ'• iÃ'•, at itÃ'• core, an international company with only 30% of itÃ'• 2007 Ã'•aleÃ'• coming from North America. Moreover, it iÃ'• rapidly expanding itÃ'• preÃ'•ence in emerging marketÃ'• like AÃ'•ia and Latin America. BecauÃ'•e it targetÃ'• the wealthieÃ'•t Ã'•egmentÃ'• of the market the company leadÃ'• itÃ'• competitorÃ'• in Ã'•aleÃ'• in Japan, Korea, India, Thailand, IndoneÃ'•ia, and New Zealand; Ã'•aleÃ'• growth in itÃ'• core emerging marketÃ'• in Latin America and AÃ'•ia have haÃ'• topped 24% in the laÃ'•t Ã'•everal yearÃ'•. By 2010, management expectÃ'• China to be itÃ'• Ã'•econd biggeÃ'•t market. (CooperÃ'• and Lybrand, 2004, 77-84) AdidaÃ'• Group generateÃ'• revenue by Ã'•elling itÃ'• productÃ'• to retail Ã'•toreÃ'• or directly to the cuÃ'•tomer via one of the brandÃ'• concept Ã'•toreÃ'•, factory outletÃ'•, conceÃ'•Ã'•ion cornerÃ'•, or online Ã'•toreÃ'•. Of thiÃ'• revenue, 46% iÃ'• from footwear, 42% from apparel, and 12% from hardware. In 2007 the company had â‚ ¬10.3 billion in revenue ($13.7 billion baÃ'•ed on the average 2007 exchange rate), which waÃ'• a 7% currency-neutral increaÃ'•e over 2006Ã'• revenueÃ'• of â‚ ¬10.084 billion ($12.557 billion). While operating margin haÃ'• dropped overall Ã'•ince 2005, thiÃ'• can be attributed to the coÃ'•tÃ'• aÃ'•Ã'•ociated with integrating Reebok, which haÃ'•

Leader Persona Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Leader Persona - Essay Example ust have appropriate qualities capable of fostering the growth of the various aspects of the society as the below analysis of Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani below portrays. Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani typifies the qualities of a good leader in the contemporary society. From his controversial rise to power in 1995 to the current economic and social stability of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani continues to prove his ability to lead and revolutionize a modern society, one bestowed with limitless natural resources that continue to cause chaos and mayhem in numerous other parts of the world. Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani came from Al Thani, a royal family in Qatar and became the ruling Emir in 1995 through a bloodless coup of the palace. He ruled the country from 1995 to 2013 a period within which Qatar experienced tremendous economic growth. Additionally, Qatari became a regional economic and diplomatic hub under his leadership. Numerous sports and diplomatic functions took place in the county during his tenure. As stated earlier, he embodied a perfect and revolutionary leader who enhanced the growth and prosperity. Key among his personality traits was aggressiveness (Kronfol, Ghuloum & Weber, 2013). He rose to power by overthrowing an existing Emir of the kingdom. Such was his belief in both himself and his leadership. He believed that he could lead the people of Qatar better thereby enhancing the development of the Kingdom. He therefore grabbed the throne. He was part of the royalty in the Kingdom a feature that made the coup bloodless. However, soon after rising to power, he busied himself with the formation of appropriate social and political structures to help secure the country and fortify his position as the Emir of the Kingdom. He understood that politics continue to bedevil other countries with similar political structures. He therefore sought to safeguard his position as the leader of the country by creating appropriate political structures to help him secure his

America's Post-Civil War Growing Pains Research Paper - 2

America's Post-Civil War Growing Pains - Research Paper Example irm understanding of the ways in which reconstruction affected the United States much necessarily break down into highly specialized examinations of key groups and individual changes as any broad judgments make the risk of glossing over the ways in which minor details worked together to create major differentials. As a function of this, this brief analysis will seek to answer the following 5 key questions with relation to reconstruction: identification and discussion of two major historical turning points during the Reconstruction period, the impact of these two major historical turning points on society, economy, culture, and politics, discussion of two ways the Reconstruction period may have been different had Lincoln lived, discussion of how industrialization and urbanization affected the life of the average working American, and two examples of how the federal and/or state courts and legislatures handed down decisions or passed laws during the period that served to discriminate a gainst non-white citizens and immigrants (Nilsson 2012). With reference to the first question, the two major historical turning points during the period under the Reconstruction can definitively be those of the completion of the Transcontinental Railroad and the dawn of the industrial period ushered in by the Gilded Age (Bentrix 2007). Both of these factors helped to represent newfound opportunities for a host of disenfranchised and downtrodden individuals who had seen the hope of a better life all but implode as a result of the Civil War. With respect to the completion of the Transcontinental Railroad, this enabled poorer families from back East to risk it all and move West in hopes of building a better life. In this way, the availability of the frontier was again able to absorb much of the historical difficulties that the American people had experienced. Secondly, the dawn of the industrial age helped to give a host of out of work farmers and others individuals well paying jobs

A self assessment on intercultural negotiating skills Essay - 3

A self assessment on intercultural negotiating skills - Essay Example This paper will discuss the qualities of a good intercultural Negotiator. It will then discuss on the experiences learned in a class negotiation simulation. Finally the paper will review the different aspects of communication strategies employed in the negotiation. In order for one to meet their goals as an intercultural negotiator, it is essential for them to possess the characteristics of a good intercultural negotiator. Firstly a good intercultural negotiator is observant. This means that they take time watch how other people communicate with each other where they note the differences between them. Secondly a good intercultural negotiator should know that different people communicate in different ways and should never assume that messages from different cultures should be interpreted in the same way. Thirdly one should be always positive when dealing with people from different cultures. This means that one should avoid miscommunication which is brought about by misconceptions about the persons intentions. A good Negotiator should also ask questions freely especially where they feel they have not understood. For instance one should ask for clarification on issues, gestures, and ideas to avoid miscommunication. One should also have good communication skills where they are able to express themselves freely by clearly explaining their communication. A good intercultural Negotiator should be polite. This means that when one is seeking any clarification or asking a question, they should do it in a respectable and polite manner in order to ensure the other participants ate not offended. Finally, a good intercultural Negotiator should be persistent meaning that they should not give up easily if they do not understand what is being communicated. One should be patient enough and allow the other person(s) to communicate in their own time. During the class negotiation simulation I got to practice the theories that we have

Passive Loss- Taxation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Passive Loss- Taxation - Essay Example Passive activity Trade and rental activities are the two kinds of passive activities. In trade or business activities, the taxpayer does not take part in a material sense throughout the duration of the year, while in rental activities, it is regardless of the taxpayer's material participation unless he or she is into real estate by profession. Deducting passive loss from a taxpayer can only extend to their passive income. According to Section 469(c)(2), any rental activity is under the classification of passive activities unless the taxpayer will materially participate in a real property trade or business during the year as well as performing personal services exceeding 750 hours. Any excess of the 750 hours corresponds to more than 50% of the personal services that the taxpayer has carried throughout all trades or businesses. An activity may also be considered non-passive if it is under a lease entered into after Feb. 18, 1988, and in which the taxpayer is renting property to a trad e or business wherein the taxpayer has material participation. Taxpayers are entitled to as much as $25,000 passive losses deduction from a rental real estate activity if he or she owns at least a 10% interest and has active participation in the activity. The availability of the sum total of the $25,000 limit is dependent on whether the adjusted gross income (AGI) is less than $100,000, though even this has gone through a gradual phasing out as the AGI increased to $150,000. (Internal Revenue Code) Of late, the Tax Court ruled in favor of the IRS in two cases, without any real relation, on the same day which involved the passive loss regulations for rental activities. Due to the taxpayer's inability to establish his activities qualification as a real property trade or business which should fall under the exception of 469(c)(7) of the Internal Revenue Code, the court ascertained that the taxpayer's rental activity was passive. On the latter case, the court determined under the "self- rental" rule of Treasury Regulation that a taxpayer's rental activity was not passive. (Reichert, 2008) Another example is the case of Carolyn Fenderson who owns 10 rental housing units, coming up with an aggregated loss of $57, 906. She filed an amended 2002 tax return way back in 2005, which included the lists of the rental income and deductions on Schedule C. She has an AGI exceeding $150, 000 and is without other passive incomes. In order to deduce the $57,906 loss, treating the activity as a non-passive real property trade or business was a necessity. After scrutinizing her calendar records, the Tax Court only accepted 759 hours out of the 1,062 hours of personal service for the rental activity she was claiming, against the 780 hours on her other job as a software sales account manager, thereby failing the 50% test for the activity Gregory Farris had a 50% interest in a partnership, renting three buildings in 1985 to his law firm which he also had a partnership with. After the execution of a new lease in 1990, another was brought forth in 1992 due to the incorporation of the law firm because of the destruction of the original document. After Farris acquired sole ownership of the rental property, a new lease was once again brought forth in 2000. In the years 2000, 2001 and 2002, Farris' claim is such that the net passive income from the property were $34,839, $46,168, and $48,391, thus enabling him to deduct equal passive losses. The IRS

Why Did Henry Viii Closed Dow the Monasteris Essay Example for Free

Why Did Henry Viii Closed Dow the Monasteris Essay In the 1500’s the king of England was Henry VIII. He had already broken up with the Catholic Church and the Pop. He had made himself head of the Church of England. Also he had divorced with Catherine of Aragon and marred Anna Boleyn. His lifestyle was extravagant and he was also worried that he could be attacked by the Catholic countries of Europe. Under these circumstances he decided to close down the monasteries for the following reasons: * He was greedy and needed more money for his extravagant lifestyle. * He needed lots of money to be prepared in case of a war with enemies * He needed to make sure the nobles of England supported him. * The monasteries had a lot of treasures and valuable parts and land * Monks and nuns lived a sinful life. Hennery VIII did not want to be unpopular to his people, for closing the monasteries, so he needed to justify his actions. For this reason he ordered his minister Thomas Cromwell to send inspectors to report how holy was the life of monks / nuns and how wealthy the monasteries were. The reports said that the monks and nuns were living a sinful life. Using the reports he managed to justify closing down the monasteries. He seized the wealth and the land of the monasteries for his needs (extravagant lifestyle, in case of war). To keep the nobles loyal to him, he gave them money and land. Finally this helped him to break one more link of the Pope with his people. Henry the VIII by closing the monasteries managed to solve his problems and to keep as many people as he could.

Periodontal Therapy Evaluation

Periodontal Therapy Evaluation Chapter One: Introduction The objectives of periodontal therapy as stated by the American Academy of Periodontology official guidelines are natural dentition preservation; periodontal health maintenance and improvement, comfort, esthetics, and function; and replacements provision where indicated. (Guidelines for periodontal therapy .J Periodontol 1998) Therefore, the reduction of bacterial deposits and calculus on tooth surface is one of the objectives of periodontal therapy. (Axelsson et al, 1991) This objective can be achieved with hand scalers and curettes or ultrasonic scaling instruments. (Drisko, 1998) Many clinical studies showed no difference between ultrasonic/sonic and manual procedures when treating chronic periodontitis. (Tunkel et al, 2002) Total removal of subgingival calculus with hand or ultrasonic instruments or even periodontal surgery is not possible even with periodontal surgery. (Buchanan et al., 1987; Kepic et al., 1990). While Aleo et al. (1974) demonstrated the presence of bacterial endotoxins on diseased roots; Hatfield Baumhammers (1971) first described the cytotoxic effect of diseased root surfaces in cell cultures. The former workers also detected that human gingival fibroblasts did not adhere in vitro to a root surface contaminated with LPS in 1975. Therefore, it was determined that the removal of the affected cementum was critical to the success of periodontal therapy. Nakib et al. (1982), however, in another in vitro study failed to demonstrate penetration of endotoxins into root cement of either periodontally healthy or diseased teeth. As a result, they considered intended excessive removal of cementum was not acceptable in treatment, which was reinforced by other workers findings. Also Eide et al. (1983, 1984) found that the thin cuticle seen on diseased root surfaces that was most likely stemmed from the inflammatory exudate and could mineralize so these cytotoxic substances can be incorporated. Hughes Smales (1986) and Hughes et al. (1988) also did not approve the removal of substantial amounts of cementum, as LPS was detected by immunohistochemical techniques only on the cementum surface. Interestingly, Moore et al. (1986) demonstrated that virtually all the LPS associated with periodontally involved root surfaces could be removed just by rinsing and brushing. The root cementum has been studied for the presence of endotoxins as well as bacteria themselves. Hence for example Daly et al. (1982) observed in a histological study stainable bacteria in the cementum. They have showed that for a root surface to be free of contamination, cementum must be removed. Bacteria were also detected by Adriaens et al. (1988) in both the cementum and within the dentinal tubules. These authors as a result suggested the administration of chemotherapeutics to mechanical therapy in the treatment of periodontitis was required. Schroeder Rateitschak-Pliiss (1983) sanctioned the findings of Daly et al. (1982) of resorption lacimae in the cementum showing defects of 30-80 /im in depth. Likewise they found that extensive root planing was essential to remove bacterial accumulation niches. From a clinical point of view the motive for the extensive removal of root surface material has been questioned recently. Nyman et al. (1986) disclosed in beagle dogs that for an effective treatment of periodontitis the removal of so-called diseased cementum was not needed. The roots, following flap elevation, were instrumented with curettes and a diamond bur on one side of the jaw and on the contralateral side were only cleaned with interdental rubber tips and rubber cups by means of a low abrasive polishing paste. The healing, which was assessed histometrically, was alike with both treatments and was distinguished by a junctional epithelium with subjacent non-inflamed connective tissue. Nyman et al. (1988) in a subsequent study in humans, compared results in which the root surface polishing was accompanied by calculus removal but not cementum and similar healing was again seen. Blomlof et al. (1987), in another investigation on monkeys, found new attachment to the teeth treated with detergents rather than scaling. The effects of root scaling in an in vitro model system (Lie Meyer 1977) have been studied using SEM methods and limited to semi-quantitative assessments with the Loss of Tooth Substance Index (LTSI) score. Others have tried to determine the loss of substance from the micrometer screw recordings in the light microscope, after focusing twice (Allen Rhoads 1963). The ultrasonic instrument, in a corresponding in vitro model, caused loss of tooth substance of about 250 pm and of about 50 /im after the curette use. Berkstein et al. (1987) measured the diameter of the dental root with a micrometer caliper before and after single treatment with the curette, detecting a loss of substance of about 27 pxn. The effectiveness of the procedures of root planing can be studied in two different ways. The first one, In vivo studies, by evaluating healing of tissues around the treated teeth, and the other one, in vitro studies, directly following extraction of teeth after SRP in order to observe the characteristics and cleanliness of the root planed surfaces (Kepic et al, 1990). The stereomicroscope has been used by many authors to assess the residual calculus after extraction of the root planed teeth. However, to achieve a precise study to accurately evaluate root planed surfaces, scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a prerequisite (Rateitschak-Plà ¼ss et al, 1992). Many studies, concerning both microbiological and clinical aspects, have reported beneficial results from mechanical therapy (O’ Leary et al 1986; Ash et al, 1964; Sbordone, 1990). The hand instruments, ever since, were the first choice of clinicians. These instruments believed to produce a smooth root surface; yet, considerable manual dexterity is essential for their effective operation. Also, they are so time consuming and do not have the capability of reaching deeper root surface where pockets are more than 4 mm deep (Waerhaug, 1978; Rabbani et al, 1981 ). Ultrasonic tips were formerly designed for gross scaling and supragingival calculus and stains removal. Currently, modifications have been made to these power driven instruments to have longer working lengths and smaller diameter tips, thus providing better access to deep probing sites and more effective subgingival instrumentation. Ultrasonic instruments are easy to use; yet, it is often challenging to achieve a smooth and calculus free root surface (Moskow, 1972; Jones, 1972). Studies assessing variations in the magnitude of root surface changes created by hand, sonic, and ultrasonic instruments are lacking (Walmsley et al, 2008; Oda et al, 2004; Kocher et al, 2002). Bearing in mind manual and ultrasonic scalers, some reports show that manual scalers remove more root substance (Jacobson et al, 1994), while others showed that ultrasonic scalers do so (Oda et al, 2004). Concurrently, roughness of root surface after instrumentation is one of the most described changes in the literature. The relationship between the design of the tip, applied force, angulations and ultrasonic scaler type has been reviewed and all of these variables appear to explain the roughness of instrumented root surfaces (Flemmig et al, 1998). Ribeiro et al (2006) revealed that scaling with universal ultrasonic tips and diamond-coated sonic produced similar root surface roughness, which was more than that produced by hand curettes. Furthermore, another study by (Casarin et al, 2006) showed a positive influence of the ultrasonic scaler power settings on the roughness of the surface after instrumentation. As reported by those authors, more increased roughness was noted with greater settings of power. Lie and Leknes (1985) assessed the variations produced at different power settings by means of a subjective and controversial method, the Roughness Loss of Tooth Substance Index (RLTSI). The RLTSI assesses roughness and substance loss concurrently. Nevertheless, the loss of tooth substance with the use of a specific instrument cannot be straightway correlated with the root surface roughness (Kocher, 2002; Schmidlin et al, 2001), requiring a separate evaluation (Schmidlin et al, 2001).

Feminism And Feminist Epistemology And Science Sociology Essay

Feminism And Feminist Epistemology And Science Sociology Essay The word feminism is very challenging and difficult to describe specifically but it has a greater value in todays society mostly in the developing areas like Nepal, Srilanka, Bangladesh etc. The women of developing countries are facing so many problems like inequality from political issues to even in their house. To eradicate such inequality problem from the existing society the word feminism developed. Feminism refers to the beliefs that are injustices against women and they have been devalued and denied full equality (1). Feminism helps to exaggerate the women roles, power and their contribution to the society. It gives the full freedom to the women about their choices of lives. This feminism refers to the equality between men and women. They have equal rights and responsibility towards the society. In the mid-1800s the term feminism was used to refer to the qualities of females (2). The term Feminism was derived from the French word feministe in the 1892 after the first international womens conference in Paris. The term feministe means belief in and advocacy of equal rights for women based on the idea of the equality of the sexes. Although the term feminism in English is rooted in the mobilization or women suffrage in Europe and the US during the late 19th and early 20th century (3). The feminist movement is divided in to three waves; First wave begin during the 19th century and it refers on a newer feminist movement that focused as much on fighting social and cultural inequalities as further political inequalities (4). The second wave in the early of 1960s, feminism saw cultural and political inequalities as inextricably linked and this movement encouraged women to understand aspects of their own lives as deeply politicized and reflective of a sexiest structure of power (5). The third wave movement arise ideology of A post structuralist interpretation of gender and sexuality in the early 1990s (6). These three movements encourage the women for their rights and their equality. The ideology of feminism starts influencing throughout the society after this movement. It brings a revolution in the way men and women are equal to each other and effects fundamental change in society. It entails that the women have equal rights and duty as a man in all aspect. What is feminist epistemology and science? Epistemologist focus on the nature, origins and the limits of human knowledge (7). It is the nature of knowledge itself and its study focuses for acquiring knowledge and differentiate between truth and falsehood. Epistemology concerns every scientific discipline which helps to the collective efforts of human beings. In the modern days the epistemology is the debate between the empiricism (i.e., knowledge is obtained through experience) and rationalism (knowledge can be acquired through reason). There are many aspects of knowledge like social, economical and many more but many of the epistemologist focus on the social aspect of knowledge where the production creation and discovery concerns. Social epistemology is the study of the relevance of social relations, interests, and institutions to knowledge (8). Feminism has also roles in social investigation of knowledge and its epistemology is concerned to the whose knowledge is being considered. Feminist epistemologist does not confess about the empirical evidence but instead of that it suggests knowing the social contexts and social beliefs because of its factuality. Feminist epistemologists of science typically argue that the way science is done includes cultural and social standards in the description of nature. Gender is both part of the cultural idea that shapes how nature is described and is also described by the process of science. The feminist critiques of science: The feminist critique of sciences is a crucial subject where the science may be negatively impacted by postmodern or feminist critiques in a similar way to humanities and social sciences. There is also a debate between the realism and relativism. Realism is that there is an objective world which people learn about. Relativism is the idea that truth is relative in one way or another. It is easy to fall into the trap that a feminist social epistemology-and any field which it makes a statement about, even science-is relativist, and many thinkers have addressed this, either making cases that relativism is correct or making claims for a realist feminist science. Background for the feminist studies of objectivity in sciences: Objectivity is commonly taken to be the extent to which we allow our scientific beliefs to be driven by some impartial and non arbitrary criteria rather than by our wishes as to how things ought to be (9).1 Science is more objective than other areas such as art and literary criticism. To be a science the research programs must follow some criteria, certain norms and rules (i.e., scientific method) rather than the prejudices, guesses and emotions. According to the great philosophers, Thomas Kuhn and Paul Feyerabend suggested the views that emphasize the degree to which what we call science is constituted by factors that seem to fall outside the realm justification. They are not trying to focus on the extent to which science is independent of who does it but instead of that it raise the questions about the real level of objectivity in science and how the scientist outline or modeled which hypothesis or theories pass for scientific knowledge. It is the crucial things to distinct between the real sciences and the rest things (non sciences). Another philosopher, Quine also raised a question about how autonomous science is from the other subjects such as prejudices, guesses and emotions i.e., metaphysical commitments. He suggested that science is not separable from other social, political beliefs that we have. The ideas given by Kuhn and Quine raise a question about the objectivity of science and these doubts arose well within what is sometime considered traditional philosophy of science.9 When the issue of gender was raised mostly many feminists were interested in determining what the possible factors of gender counts are as a scientific knowledge. A feminist tries to find out how the gender plays a role in recreation of scientific knowledge. Moreover, Gender is related with the sexism here the word sexism refers to the male, female and assumption about the superiority of one gender to the other gender however there is no conclusive evidence for that assumption. The way of women are ignoring and demoralizing in almost every field so the feminists began to criticize on those things in which science excluded women, ignored scientific issues pertaining to women and even the scientific theories influencing by the womens societal views reveal a question about the real objectivity of science. Science as Social (Helen Longino Harding): The problem seen by Harding regarding the objectivity in science is that she assumed the traditional conceptions of objectivity. To revealing and assessing the role of cultural and personal interests and values in sciences is very difficult to measure and assess. If the role is being played by cultural and personal interests and values then it is judged to be bad for science, or if the role played is considered inappropriately large then it is argued that it need have a way to eliminate or mitigate this role, thus increasing the extent to which science is objective(10). Harding was the person who finds the way to reveal and assess interests and values in science is to examine them from an alternate point of view, and she claims that current conceptions of objectivity are inadequate for these tasks. Helen longino also face the same problem as seen by Harding and longino tries to solve this problem by focusing on how the scientific community is comprised and behaves instead of not givi ng attention to what individual scientists are doing. Longino claims that science is social, in the sense that doing science requires the interaction of individuals. Feminism and post-feminism: Feminism refers to the belief that women are equal to men. Some feminist argue that women need is not equality rather they need to be recognized and valued in their differences from men but some feminists believe that women need liberation from oppression instead of equal treatment and respect for their differences to men. Feminism seeks to improve the lot of those people who have been made into women, but it cannot rightly be said that feminism seeks to improve the condition of women that would be an impossible, self-contradictory mission (11). According to Rosalind Delmar, it makes more sense to speak of a plurality of feminism than a single one (1986:9). It means that there must be some underlying commitment that all feminist share and make them feminist. Valerie Bryson says that all feminists share the belief that women are disadvantaged in comparison with men, and that this disadvantage is not a natural and inevitable result of biological difference but something that can and should be challenged and changed (Bryson 1993: 192). But some feminists would reject even this, perhaps on the grounds that womens biology does disadvantage them but that recent technologies such as the contraceptive pill allow women to overcome their biological limitations (Firestone 1970). Post-feminists believe that women have achieved second wave goals while being critical of third wave feminist goals. The term was first used in the 1980s to describe a backlash against second-wave feminism. It is now a label for a wide range of theories that take critical approaches to previous feminist discourses and includes challenges to the second waves ideas.(39) Other post-feminists say that feminism is no longer relevant to todays society.(40) Amelia Jones wrote that the post-feminist texts which emerged in the 1980s and 1990s portrayed second-wave feminism as a monolithic entity and criticized it using generalizations.(41) One of the earliest uses of the term was in Susan Bolotins 1982 article Voices of the Post-Feminist Generation, published in New York Times Magazine. This article was based on a number of interviews with women who largely agreed with the goals of feminism, but did not identify as feminists.(42) Some contemporary feminists, such as Katha Pollitt or Nadine Strossen, consider feminism to hold simply that women are people. Views that separate the sexes rather than unite them are considered by these writers to be sexist rather than feminist.'(43)(44) Conclusion: 39.Wright, Elizabeth (2000). Lacan and Postfeminism (Postmodern Encounters). Totem Books. ISBN  978-1-84046-182-9. 40.^ Modleski, Tania (1991). Feminism without women: culture and criticism in a postfeminist age. New York: Routledge. pp.  188. ISBN  0-415-90416-1. 41.^ Jones, Amelia. Postfeminism, Feminist Pleasures, and Embodied Theories of Art, in New Feminist Criticism: Art, Identity, Action, ed. by Joana Frueh, Cassandra L. Langer and Arlene Raven. New York: HarperCollins, 1994. 16-41, 20. 42^Rosen, Ruth (2001). The world split open: how the modern womens movement changed America. New York, N.Y.: Penguin. pp.  444. ISBN  0-14-009719-8. 43.^Pollitt, Katha (1995). Reasonable creatures: essays on women and feminism. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN  978-0-679-76278-2. 44 Strossen, Nadine (1995). Defending pornography: free speech, sex, and the fight for womens rights. New York, N.Y.: Scribner. ISBN  978-0-684-19749-4.

Happiness in Fences, by August Wilson, and A Raisin in the Sun, by Lorraine Hansbury :: Fences, A Raisin in the Sun

Imagine for a moment it is your big sister's 17th birthday. She is out with her friends celebrating, and your parents are at the mall with your little brother doing some last minute birthday shopping, leaving you home alone. You then hear a knock on the front door. When you getthere, nobody is there, just an anonymous note taped to the door that says Happy Birthday, along with a hundred dollar bill. You've been dying to get that new video game, and your sister will never know. You are faced with a tough decision, but not a very uncommon one. In both Fences, by August Wilson, and A Raisin in the Sun, by Lorraine Hansbury, tough decisions have to be made about getting money from someone else's misfortune. But money's that important right? The role of money in people's day-to-day lives is quite amazing when it's put into perspective. The primary reason most Americans get up in the morning is so they can go out and make money. Money buys things; money influences people; money keeps us ali ve; money makes us happy. Or does it? In Fences, by August Wilson, the Maxtons get their money when Gabe's head is shot in the war. In A Raisin in the Sun, by Lorraine Hansbury, the Younger family gets their money when Walter's father dies. But do the se things make them happy? Of course not. They are coming upon money from someone else's misfortune, someone they love. The money may have made life easier for a brief moment in time, but the novelty soon wears off and reality soon returns. The interesting thing about these two novels is that the money received by both the Maxtons and the Youngers did exactly the opposite of what everyone expected it to do. It eventually made problems for both of the families. In Fences, the Maxtons used Gabe's money to buy a house and even though it seemed like a good idea, when Gabe moved out, it caused a great deal of guilt in the family, but especially in Troy. He just couldn't get over how he 'used' someone he loved so much, and they didn't even kn ow it. In A Raisin in the Sun, the Youngers also buy a house with the money the life insurance gave them.

Marketing at Nike Essay -- Business Management Studies

Marketing at Nike The purpose of Nike is to meet actual and potential customer needs, doing this the ethical and legal way. Marketing is about businesses such as Nike, getting the product to the right sort of people at the right price in the right place, by using the right promotion. Nike must target the right product at the right audience, for example, it would be worthless aiming sports shoes to older people because they don’t exercise because they are to old and weak. For the marketing strategy to be successful Nike must follow the main principal of marketing, which is identifying and meeting actual and potential customer needs, however, to follow this principal the next principals listed must be followed: †¢ Understanding customer needs, †¢ Understand and keep ahead of the competition, †¢ Communicate effectively with its customers to satisfy customer expectations, †¢ Co-ordinate its functions to achieve marketing aims, †¢ Be aware of constraints on marketing activities. To understand customer’s needs, Nike must be aware of their customers changes in tastes and preferences, the business will have to keep up to date with what customers want. Incomes must also be considered. This is important because if an expensive product was aimed at adults who are on the poorer end of the market, and they basically couldn’t afford it then the product will not sell. Therefore, the price of the product will obviously have to compliment the target market in order for it to be successful. Nike needs to understand and keep ahead of competition (other sport brands e.g. Adidas and Gap); to do this Nike must have better marketing strategies and activities. In order to be the best competitor, Nike should have better products and more high quality products with excellent quality and must keep trying to improve them. Competition analysis can be used to check what their competitors are doing in order to beat them. For Nike to get their message across they will need to communicate with the customers. Nike must discover how to get the message across about the new product, this could be through several ways of advertising, such as, leaflets, radio stations or even television, Nike must chose the best advertising method to suit the target market and actually promote the product. Understanding customer needs is another of the activities Nike carries out. They do this by carryi... ...n as possible. This is very important to Nike as they say they don’t operate no sweat shop policy. As Nike manufactures many of their products abroad it needs to ensure all the rules and regulations are being followed abroad to. These have been concerns by pressure groups that suspects that Nike isn’t following their code of conduct abroad, in the factories that are producing their products, however their isn’t no sold evidence. Consumers are very concerned that products they are purchasing are produced ethically and when they start doubting businesses they may start to boycott and purchases alternative products form their competitors. Consumers have a right to know how the products are being made that they produce, there is also a UN agreement the ethical constraints for Nike are no child Labour or unfair pay, but the employees get  £8 a week and it would take them a whole month to buy on of the shirts they are producing without spending any of their money on food, water etc. some people would consider that to be unfair but compared to other local jobs they are being paid a lot more. Also hour’s Nikes employees were required to work are 14 hour shifts which Nike also still denies.

The Jewish Partisans of The Holocaust Essay -- Nazi, Jewish

Resistance during the Holocaust, both Jewish and non-Jewish, is a daunting task to cover. Information abounds in relation to this which leads to the problem of putting all of it into one paper. Due to this, I will only cover the specifically Jewish Partisan fighters. The movements are divided into two groups of Eastern and Western Fighters. Partisans fought in almost every European country including but not limited to Belgium, Poland, Russia, France, Italy, Greece, and Lithuania. â€Å"A partisan is a member of an organized body of fighters who attack or harass an enemy, especially within occupied territory; a guerrilla.† The Jewish partisans were mostly teenagers, both male and female, of which ten percent were women, but also included all ages, which either formed their own organizations or joined Soviet, Polish, French, or other major partisan groups. There were between 20,000 and 30,000 Jews who joined partisan groups. They were mostly normal people who were lucky enough to have escaped German camps, ghettos, transports, or who were never captured in the first place. The role of the women was usually to cook in the camps, smuggle weapons and ammunition, and serve as doctors and nurses, and other infrastructure roles. However, some did join in combat situations and some were even employed as scouts for the partisan units. The Jewish partisans lacked weapons, shelter, and other essentials, so they were forced to steal what they needed and usually hid out in the forests and mountains. Any outside help in the East was supplied via airdrops from Moscow, and in the West it was via British airdrops. What they lacked in resources, they made up for in organization and efficiency. They were tied in with major underground communicatio... ...abotage ." http://www.untilourlastbreath.com. Michael Bart. St. Martin's Press, 2008. Web. 14 Mar. 2012. . "Jewish Partisans." United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. USHMM, Web. 26 Feb. 2012. . "Jewish Partisans." Wikipedia. MediaWiki version 1.18wmf1. Wikimedia Foundation Inc., 11 January 2012. Web. 26 Feb. 2012. . "Resistance During The Holocaust." United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. USHMM, Web. 26 Feb. 2012. . "What is a Jewish Partisan?." Jewish Partisan Educational Foundation. Jewish Partisan Educational Foundation, 2006. Web. 26 Feb. 2012. .

Women in Nation Building

Women’s participation in nation-building is an important ingredient in achieving an equitable, peaceful and more prosperous society. Gender equity and women’s inclusion play a central role both as a litmus test and as an active variable shaping a more democratic, stabilized and developed society. To enhance the results of nation-building, the study suggests that nations should place a greater emphasis on the broader concept of human security from the earliest phase of nation-building efforts. In addition, leaders should establish governance based on principles of equity and consistent rule of law, and should include women in the earliest economic reconstruction activities. Women play a special role in the overall development of the country. â€Å"There is no chance for the welfare of the world unless the condition of women is improved. It is not possible for a bird to fly on only one wing. † â€Å"woman is the builder and moulder of a nation’s destiny, though delicate and soft as lily, she has a heart, stronger and bolder than that of man, she is the supreme inspiration for man’s onward march. Today the educated women have come out of their inferiority complex and are shouldering all kinds of responsibilities, as Managers, officers, TV and radio news reader, pilots, Ministers, Anchors, Musicians, Clerks, Stenographers, and what not? state is a â€Å"union of families and villages†. Family is the basic unit of society, which is the foundation o f state itself. Happy families create a healthy society and healthy society is a pre-requisite of strong political order in democratic societies. A woman is an architect of society. She establishes the institution of family life, builds the home, brings up the children and makes them good citizens. Her strength in totality contributes in the making of an ideal family, ideal society and an ideal state. It has become essential for women to be politically empowered to achieve socio-economic justice. It has rightly been said who holds the purse holds the nation. As the women are better half of the nation, they deserve better share in political power. The male-dominated political parties and legislatures in the country do not bear with their equal number in epresentative institutions. What we lack is â€Å"political will† to understand the importance of women's role in nation building and all avenues open to them to get political power. MEN Should realize the power of women,And women should also realize their power too,what they can do for them,for their family,for their nation. They are the building blocks of nation building,In the words of Martin Luthar KIng ,†A mother's place is inside her home,But she should also make certain,she gets outside that home enough to help worth while crusades and actively mould the country her children will live in. She therefore holds a key position and her role in shaping the fate of the nation must be recognized and respected. This we see that a woman occupies a vital position in family,society and it is time we recognised and respected her ability. They should not search for the role models but try themselves to be role models in politics. It would be of no use giving equal share in parental property unless the social set-up is changed. That can be changed only by sincere implementation of laws made for women. A woman is shakti, the natural energy. The most ancient scriptures say that without the female power, it is not possible for humankind to survive. The female power has been the force behind all the great leaders of the world. Therefore, they must be politically empowered. The writing is on the wall – the hand that rocks the cradle is the hand that rules the world. OUR WOMEN have a great part to play in the progress of our country, as the mental and physical contact of women with life is much more lasting and comprehensive than that of men. For nothing was it said, â€Å"The hand that rocks the cradle rules the world†. In the apron string of women is hidden the revolutionary energy, which can establish paradise on this earth. Woman is the magnificent creation of god, a multi faceted personality with the power of benevolence, adjustability, integrity and tolerance. She is companion of man, gifted with equal mental faculty, a protector and provider, the embodiment of love and affection. The role given to women in a society is a measuring rod and true index of its civilisation and cultural attainment.

Explain How the Solow Growth Model Would Analyse the Effects of a Fall in the Household Saving Ratio

In this essay, I will focus on two important aspects. The first is to give a brief historical outline of the Solow growth model. The second thread runs express how the outline on the Solow growth model might explain the effect of a fall in the household savings ratio. My essay will be guided by the diagram provided on which I have to make specific references and to think through as well as explain the various steps of the Solow growth model and what this would mean for economic growth. Without dismissing earlier attempts, the foundations upon which modern economic growth theory rests on the foundations put by US economist Robert Solow (1924-) in the 1950s and 1960s. The Solow growth model is very neoclassic in that it focuses primarily on the supply side. The Solow model seems to implicitly assume that, as long as the supply of goods increases, economic growth can be attained. In this way it is apparently different from Keynesian models of which focus is on the demand side of the economy such as inflation and unemployment. One of the major central reason by Solow to come up with the Solow model came from the desire to know what happens in the long run to an economy in which capital accumulation is taking place. In pursuit of an answer to this question Solow came up with a degree of mathematical and analytical work. Solow pursued a model of an economy in which one has a single good that can be consumed or invested, and he says the total output in the economy Y to the total labour supply L and the stock of physical capital K. When Solow talked of physical capital he meant things like machinery, buildings, equipment, things used by labour to make products. The aggregate measurement of output is symbolised by (Y), labour (L) and capital (K). This means that Y,L and K are variables describing the whole economy. The Solow growth model tells us that in the long term, the development of a closed economy will remain at a steady state, where there is no more growth. In figure 2, the economy has settled down in point E. Here, the fraction of an average worker output that is being saved, equals the average required investment to account for the depreciation and decay. This being achieved with k1 amount of capital per worker, the economy produces an output of y1 per worker, the economy produces an output of y1 per worker. A sudden fall in the household saving ratio to s*< s leads to negative net investments F minus E: workers only save a fraction s* of still the same y1, and therefore there is not enough being saved in the economy to be able to finance the decay of the capital stock at k1. As the level k1 cannot be retained by the average worker which is (negative net investments), the output per worker y has to start to decrease. In a dynamic process, the economy will move along the curve y=f(k), that means the amount of output per worker y will decrease, until it settles at a new steady state, where the net invstements equal zero. This being achieved at point E*, the resulting capital intensity is k*, with which an output of y* can be produced with y* being smaller than y1. In other words, a fall in the household ratio leads to a decrease of the amount of capital stock, a closed economy is able to to retain in the long term. The decay in the existing capital stock cannot anymore be completely replaced by investments, as there is not enough money being saved in the economy due to the fall in the household saving ratio. These resulting negative net investments will force the economy to decrease its output to the level y*. Only here, the amount being saved in the economy can again replace the complete decaying capital stock, which means the economy settles at a new long term equilibrium, a new steady state. The fall in the household saving ratio has therefore reduced the productivity of the average worker in the economy. PART B How far do models of corporation and bargaining alter our understanding of the potential for corporation between states. In this essay, I will focus myself on two models of cooperation and bargaining. The first model is called realism and its thrust is to say that the international political systems as a whole is anarchic in so far as there is no world government but what exists are multiple competing sovereigns. In terms of cooperation and bargaining between states realism poses real challenges to interdependence and specialisation. The second model is called liberalism and like realism it begins by acknowledging that the system is of course anarchic but it goes a bit further to argue that the interests that states seek to pursue in conditions of anarchy are shaped very much by the nature of the society, domestic, and transnational over which they seek to rule and particularly liberals stress the role of dominant powerful groups within society in shaping the nature of the national interests and this is clearly illustrated in a story about the development of India`s national interest in chapter 6. The fundamental difference between the two models is that liberalism says it is not just anarchy plus the distribution of power, it`s anarchy, and the distribution of power plus interdependence. The prospects for cooperation between states under conditions of both anarchy and interdependence bring to fore three aspects of the game. The first, the game is positive-sum when states are concerned purely with their absolute gains but the chance for bargaining and cooperation to mutual advantage are real and if the positive-sum is changed negatively it results in zero-sum games in which neither will be prepared to move from the original position hence blocking cooperation. The third is when states care about both their absolute gains and their relative positions giving us an indeterminate outcome and it very much depends on how the nations weigh the one against the other. In answering the question topic therefore, I am diving into a web of complexity. The realists`philosophical thrust claims that in an anarchic system, what then differentiates states are rather their capabilities as compared to their functions. In short it is the power of states, not their common purposes (survival), that differentiates one international political system from another (Bromley, 2004 p113) In the Realist mode therefore, the state will seek to avoid as necessary as possible forms of interdependence that create vulnerability in relation to issues of security, so they will avoid all forms of subordination with relation to other states in terms of power, since the superior power of some may also threaten the security of the weak. An example in our world today could be United States with the killing of Osama Bin Laden, where the US Navy SEALS are accused of transgression and trespassing into Pakistan without sovereign rights. In just some few words one could say that the international political systems between and among states according to realists comprise an anarchy of similar, competing political authorities in which each strives to maintain or improve its relative power base. Mexico epitomises this concept in the 1910 revolution and the subsequent creation of the PRI in 1929 which fostered a strong nationalistic ideology geared toward maintaining the independence of the country from foreign economic and political influences. Having outlined in short the essence of realist philosophy, there is need therefore, to ask what implications does this realist thinking have on cooperation and bargaining between states? The realist thinking has very essential implications in the fact that cooperation between states have to be severely limited even with big organisations like WTO because what should be avoided at all costs are dependencies. Even if there are benefits that accrue from cooperation with another state, you simply cannot depend on another country since this can create vulnerabilities lets say in cases of diplomatic fallout or cases of war. Another recent example is the treacherous diplomatic fallout between United Kingdom and Malawi with consequences on bilateral relations and especially the impact it will have on a largely dependent country Malawi. That limits considerably the scope for cooperation. According to Huysmans the other element that restrict cooperation between states, or even regional blocks in this case, sometimes like the European Union, â€Å"they are not calculating primarily their benefits from cooperation in terms of what they would gain in comparison to their major competitors, because what matters is not how much richer I become as a state, what matters is how much richer I become as a state compared to you, because then I`m more powerful, can translate to military power, economic power and so on† (Huysmans, Audio CD, 2010) In short state actors have to guarantee their own self-preservation, that is to say individuals in a state of nature or states in an anarchic international system will not willingly cooperate if the result is an increase in vulnerabilities and/ or decrease in relative power. Paul Hirst, a sociologist and political theorist served a blow to to realists`arguments by going against the view that sovereign control of territory is forged purely internally by arguing that states need to interact in the anarchic realm of international politics with other states. The achievement of sovereignty therefore, is at least partly the product of agreements between states in the form of recognition of each others`sovereign rights (Bromley 2004, p120) In this case therefore one dependents on the other. This then is the best chance to bring into play liberalism which argues that what we need to look at is the way in which the different national interests of states, that are shaped by the societies over which they rule, are configured together when put together at an international system. What we have are states all interacting with one another, all chasing national interests, as defined by their dominant groups, and those interests configure in different ways sometimes states interests are conflictual, sometimes cooperative and at some points mutually beneficial. Trade liberalisation is an example where arguably, the interests of states that are mutually engaging in trade liberalisation are not in conflict. They can both benefit from trade. States may come to view their position in relation to the others in a much more absolute terms and as a consequence of that, with full understanding of the fact that the structure of international system is interdependent as well as anarchic, enduring cooperation is at least a possibility. The states according to Bromley face an environment of what is called â€Å"strategic inter-dependence† to mean the strategies that one can champion are conditioned by their anticipation of the strategies that others will pursue (Bromley CD 2010). Unlike, the realists, the assumption is that when states`interests interact internationally, it is not always the case that states will focus on their position or be worried about dependence, and the argument pursued is that security is only one value among others, that security will be balanced alongside other considerations like economic welfare, promotion of cultural values, or whatever. In this regard Mexico is a perfect example, in so far as Mexico joined NAFTA, not worrying so much about its position vis-a-vis its dominant neighbour, the United States but increasingly focusing on the absolute gains that Mexico might make through those policies. Chapter 9, says states sometimes interact in positive-sum ways, meaning when they interact they both gain from cooperation and bargaining, sometimes they interact in ways that are zero-sum; if I gain you lose or otherwise it is negative-sum in which both sides lose. The realists model that Jef outlines seems to advocate or assume that all cooperation because they are relative ains, are zero-sum; if I gain you lose but according to liberal thinking there are situations when it is a win-win situation (Bromley CD 2010) The Liberal model also argues that there are many situations where mutual dependence does not imply vulnerability vis-a-vis security or even worry about their relative position vis-a-vis other states and an example could be that as a country, we can come to define our national interest in terms, not of how we are progressing vis-a-vis another country but how we are coping vis-a-vis last year, focused only on our growth rate. The core claim of liberal model is that once you recognise the strategic nature of interdependence and once you recognise that the national interest is socially shaped by society and not just deriving from your position in the state system, then the possibilities of cooperation are far much greater. Concluding remarks draws three general conclusions, the game is positive-sum if states are geared solely with their absolute gains, there is chance for co-operative bargaining to mutual advantage. Anarchy is no danger to cooperation in this world. Secondly, if states evaluate their positions purely in relation to others, then all games even positive-sum ones are turned to zero-sum ones where neither will be prepared to move away from the original thereby blocking cooperation as was seen between the superpowers during the Cold War. Thirdly, when states care about their absolute gains and their relative positions, the outcome is indeterminate and depends on how they weigh the one against the other. If relative considerations do not weigh too heavily in their calculations, states may still find themselves in a positive-sum game.

Additional Study Questions

What Is the difference between transaction processing systems, management information systems, and decision support systems? Transaction processing systems – document financial activities Management Information systems – used to collect qualitative as well as quantitative information for decision making within organizations Decision support systems – help the developers of an ASS identify what information they need for their planning, decision making, and control functions How is a flowchart used?A document flowchart traces the physical flow of documents wrought an organization?that is, the flow of documents from the departments, groups, or individuals who first created them to their final destinations. How is the accounting Information system documented? An accounting information system Is a collection of data and processing procedures that creates needed Information for Its users. An Information system's components: Data or Information Is Input, processed, and output as Information for planning, decision-making, and control purposes.What are effective coding systems used in ASS? (1) mnemonic codes, (2) sequence codes, (3) block codes. And (4) group codes. How do accounting information software packages differ? Owners will have to consider what tasks they'll want their system to accomplish, identify what software package or packages can perform these tasks, and perhaps evaluate several different computer hardware configurations that might support these packages. What are the roles of accounting Information systems In e-commerce?Enterprise resource management (ERP) software such as SAP are particularly Important to electronic commerce (e-commerce) applications?for example, because a simple sale over the Internet simultaneously affects accounts receivable, inventory, and racketing subsystems. How do accounting information software packages differ by business size? The type of accounting software package used in businesses depends on the size of company operations, number of users and different segments or departments in a company.Do enterprise resource planning systems add productivity to a business enterprise? Enterprise resource management (ERP) software enables businesses and government agencies to transmit and manipulate financial data on an organization-wide basis. How could unethical behavior related to the use of information systems impact a acceptable and then acting accordingly. Ethics can govern organizations as well as individuals. An example is the practice of unauthorized software copying.How can a business secure its electronic financial data? The Fair Employment Practices Guidelines suggest that company policies cover issues such as (1) who owns the computer and the data stored on the computer, (2) what purposes the computer may be used (e. G. , primarily for business purposes), and (3) what uses are unauthorized or prohibited. Further, employers should specifically identify the types of acceptable and u nacceptable uses, with some examples. What are some vulnerabilities and threats in information systems? The data that are input manually to a system are particularly vulnerable to compromise – Viruses can hide in e-mails from friends and colleagues because their computer systems have been infected. How would input controls, processing controls, and output controls be used? Data input controls ensure the accuracy, completeness, and timeliness of data during its conversion from its original source into computer data, or entry into a computer application. Data processing controls are used to ensure the accuracy, completeness, ND timeliness of data during either batch or online processing.Data output controls ensure the integrity of output and the correct and timely distribution of any output produced. What are parts of an information security system? An information security management system (ISMS) is a set of policies concerned with information security management or IT related risks. How do disaster risk management practices benefit a company? An organization's disaster recovery plan describes the procedures to be followed in the event of an emergency, as well as the role of every member of the disaster recovery team (which s made up of specific company employees).What are the techniques used for analyzing internal control systems? Review existing documentation or create new materials. Observe the current system in operation. Use questionnaires and surveys. Review internal control procedures. Interview system participants. How do internal auditing and external auditing of information systems differ? In an internal audit, a company's own accounting employees perform the audit, whereas accountants working for an independent CPA firm conduct an external audit. What are information system audits?The auditor will first decide if computer examination of the computer-based information system itself What potential risks must be evaluated during an information sy stem audit? The auditors will perform compliance testing to ensure that the controls are in place and working as prescribed. This may entail using some computer-assisted audit techniques (Scats) to audit the computerized ASS. These involve the use of computer processes or controls to perform audit functions, such as sorting data to detect duplicate accounts payable invoice numbers. Finally, the auditor will need to obstructively test some account balances.What control procedures should be used to minimize risks in an information system? The desirability of an internal control procedure is a function of its ability to reduce business risk. In fact, it is the business risk itself that is important, not the internal control system. Why is a financial statement audit required? In performing financial statement audits, the auditors gather and evaluate audit evidence to form an opinion about whether the financial statements follow the appropriate criteria, usually generally accepted accou nting principles.The auditors must gather sufficient appropriate audit evidence to provide a reasonable basis for their opinion on the financial statements. What are the auditor's responsibilities in performing an audit engagement? The auditor may make separate assessments of the two risks or an overall assessment of the risk of material misstatement for the relevant assertions. How are generally accepted auditing standards used? These adopted and issued standards are required to be followed when auditors audit the financial statements (and internal control) of issuers of securities (public companies).What analytical procedures are used during an audit? A simple analytical procedure is to compare revenue and expense amounts for the current year to those of prior periods, noting significant differences. A more sophisticated analytical procedure might involve the development of a multiple regression model to estimate the amount of sales for the year using economic and industry data. A nalytical procedures also may involve computations of percentage relationships of various items in the financial statements, such as gross profit percentages.In all these approaches, the auditors attempt to identify unexpected differences or the absence of expected differences. Such differences may indicate misstatements in the financial statements that should be investigated fully by the auditors. How is an audit engagement planned? The requirements for the engagement include the financial statements to be audited, any other requirements (e. G. , regulatory filings), and the timing of the engagement. Engagement What is included in an audit engagement letter? The objective and scope of the audit – The responsibilities of the auditor The responsibilities of management and identification of the applicable financial reporting framework – Other information [fee arrangements, billings, timings, and other specific terms – Reporting What is the relationship between aud it risk and materiality? Audit risk – at the overall engagement level, this is the risk that the auditors may unknowingly fail to appropriately modify their opinion on financial statements that are materially misstated.At the financial statement assertion level, it is the risk that a particular assertion about an account balance is materially misstated. Materiality – recognizes hat some matters are important to the fair presentation of financial statements, while others are not. The materiality concept is basic to the audit, because the audit report states that an audit is performed to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements are free of material misstatement. What risks are present that affect the procedures to be used during an audit? Complexity of calculations involved.Risk of fraud. Selection and application of accounting policies. Internal and external circumstances giving rise to business risks (e. G. , technological change in the indust ry). Recent developments in the industry and economy. How do the ethical standards set by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (CPA), Securities Exchange Commission (SEC), and Government Accounting Office (GAO) differ? CPA – The national professional organization of Spas engaged in promoting high professional standards to ensure that Spas serve the public interest.SEC – A government agency authorized to regulate companies seeking approval to issue securities for sale to the public. GAO – The Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GABS) was formed in 1984 to establish and improve tankards of financial accounting for state and local government entities. How do rules of independence impact the CPA and the client? It is important to recognize that independence concerns exist both at the individual CPA level and at the public accounting firm level; one, both, or neither may be considered independent with respect to a client or potential client.A p ublic accounting firm does not necessarily lose independence with respect to an engagement when one (or more) of its employees or partners are not independent. What is prohibited by the code of professional conduct? The Code of Professional Conduct prohibits a member of the audit team for a client company from holding any common stock in that company. In such circumstances, no further consideration is required?that individual is not independent. 2002 requires that one year pass before a member of the audit team may accept employment with an SEC registrant in certain designated positions (e. . , chief executive officer, controller, chief financial or accounting officer). What elements should be included in an internal control structure? Preventive controls are aimed at avoiding the occurrence of misstatements in the financial statements. Detective controls are designed to discover misstatements after they have occurred. A corrective control is ordinarily needed to remedy the situatio n. How would an auditor test the relationship between control risk and the internal control structure?Internal control is a process, effected by the entity's board of directors, management, and other personnel, designed to provide reasonable assurance regarding the achievement of objectives in the categories of (1) effectiveness and efficiency of operations, (2) reliability of financial reporting, and (3) compliance with applicable laws and regulations. Prior to 1996, the Aspic's Professional Standards referred to an entity's internal control as its internal control structure. What audit sampling is used by the auditor?Statistical and Non-statistical Sampling A sample is said to be non-statistical (or Judgmental) when the auditors estimate sampling risk by using professional Judgment rather than statistical techniques. Statistical sampling may assist auditors in (1) designing efficient samples, (2) measuring the sufficiency of the evidence obtained, and (3) objectively evaluating sa mple results. How is evidential matter used? Sufficient competent evidential matter is to be obtained through inspection, observation, inquiries, and confirmations to afford a reasonable basis for an opinion regarding the financial statements under audit.What should a CPA include in a standard management representation letter? A report to management containing the auditors' recommendations for correcting any deficiencies disclosed by the auditors' consideration of internal control. In addition to providing management with useful information, a management letter may also help limit the auditors' liability in the event a control weakness subsequently results in a loss by the client. What information should the entity's internal control structure report include? Deficiency in internal control Less than a significant deficiency Significant deficiency Material weakness the word independent.It is addressed to those for whom it is prepared, generally the audited company itself or to those charged with governance. After the introductory paragraph, the report is divided into sections with headings. The introductory paragraph of the auditors' report identifies the financial statements that have been audited. To reduce confusion, audit reports issued in the United States now use arms such as â€Å"generally accepted auditing standards (United States of America)† or â€Å"auditing standards generally accepted in the United States of America. The date of the audit report is quite significant because the auditors have a responsibility to perform procedures through that date to search for any subsequent events that may affect the fairness of the client's financial statements, and due to requirements relating to changes in documentation that arise after that date What information is included in an audit exit interview? After they have completed he draft report, they should arrange an exit conference to review the findings with all persons directly concerned with the o perations audited.For each finding, a complete report will describe (1) the criteria used to evaluate the activity, (2) the condition (e. G. , problem) that exists, (3) the cause, (4) the effect, and (5) recommendations for improvement What can the CPA learn from the attorney representation letter? Management provides an assertion about compliance in writing in a representation letter to the Spas. That assertion also may be presented in a formal report that accompanies the Spas' report or be included in the Spas' report.The Spas' report provides assurance on either management's assertion or directly on compliance. What other services can CPA firms provide? – Tax – Accounting and Assurance What is an attestation engagement? In compliance attestation engagements, Spas address an organization's compliance with specified requirements, or its internal control over compliance with specific laws and regulations. How do governmental auditing standards and financial auditing st andards differ? GAP defines how businesses, both public and private, prepare their financial tenements.Governmental Auditing Standards are a series of rules that define how an independent agent is supposed to review a government agency's financial statements and internal processes. Do governmental regulations have an effect on financial statement audits? Governmental organizations are subject to a variety of laws and regulations that affect their financial statements?many more than typical business enterprises. An important aspect of generally accepted accounting principles for governmental organizations is the recognition of various legal and contractual requirements.

Sociological Theories About The Modern Family

â€Å"The family is the most important institution in society. † This statement is repeated in almost every sociology text in some form or another. However, current trends suggest that there may be some inaccuracies in this claim. Family is indeed important and necessary. It can even be defined as very important, but its relationship to the term institutional may be problematic. The conflict is inherent in the definition of family based of the functionalists and the conflict theorists. Functionalist TheoryThis conservative, macro-level perspective emphasizes the role of family as a social institution that contributes to social stability. Carroll (2012) explains that the violence and terror of the French Revolution and the mass violence resulting from the desperate circumstances of the workers during the Industrial Revolution led to fears of the consequences of a crumbling social order. Out of this fear grew conservative intellectual writings that examined social bonds, rules, and socialization practices that enable society to maintain a sense of stability that benefits all members of society.Functional theorists warn of dire consequences if a strong society and effective socialization practices are not maintained. Carroll explains that Émile Durkheim, the French scholar who first presented this theory, suggested that society had a moral authority to â€Å"limit individual aspirations† in order to maintain norms and values and to limit social change in order to prevent social upheaval. Within this theory, family is seen as the institution that is responsible for socializing children, regulating sexual activity and reproduction, and provides its members with a social identity (Carroll, 2012).Conflict Theory This macro-level perspective focuses on the negative outcomes of societal norms, such as social inequality, and seeks to address and redress the aspects of society that perpetuate these undesirable norms. Carroll (2012) explains that this the ory grew out of the works of Marx and Engels who believed that revolution was a necessary step for transforming a capitalist social order that enslaved the working class (the proletariat) to the ruling class (the bourgeoisie) and perpetuates poverty and misery for the enslaved.The primary conflict according to Marx and Engels is based on perpetuating social norms within a class system that benefits one class over another. Conflict theorists examine how the family unit is also an institution that perpetuates inequality, by reinforcing patriarchy, between members of the family and seeks to find solutions to reduce or eliminate these innate inequalities. Feminist theory, in particular, evaluates how gender inequality is perpetuated within the family as children are socialized to fulfil future social, political, and economic roles (Carroll, 2012).Symbolic-Internationalist Theory A micro-perspective paradigm examines the meanings, interpretations, and understandings of the interactions o f individuals within a society. While this type of theory does not contribute to evaluating and solving social issues such as poverty, racism, sexism, or social change, it does allow a context for understanding the nature of institutions, such as the family, within the macro-perspective theories. Social order is transmitted through symbols— roles, behaviours, and other social constructions— that are integrated as a result of social interactions (Carroll, 2012).Although this is a micro-theoretical paradigm, understanding the interactions, communication, symbols, and expectations could contribute to alleviating the clash between the two macro-level theories. Understanding what works and what does not work permits opportunities to change or delete the aspects of family or family dynamics that contributes to inequality, without dismantling the entire institution and causing complete social upheaval.The Changing Nature of Family O'Neill (2002) evaluates the â€Å"fatherles s family† and provides ample statistics to show that the breakdown of the traditional family of father,  mother, and offspring— due to increasing divorce and out-of-wedlock reproduction— is correlated with poverty, emotional, psychological, and heath problems, and interaction problems with children for lone mothers; health issues or increased engagement in high risk behaviours for non-resident fathers; poverty, deprivation, school troubles, more health problems, and increased risk of abuse for children who do not live with their biological fathers. Her conclusion that these issues are the result of the breakdown of the family is an example of functionalist theory.She suggests that the outcomes are the result of the social breakdown of a vital social institution. A conflict theorist would more than likely suggest a different reason for the observed dysfunctions outlined by O'Neill (2002). The symbolic-internationalist would provide very specific context of the n ature of the interactions within the families described by O'Neill and may find that the dysfunctions are not the result of resistance to socialized norms, but in fact due to conformity.The â€Å"fatherless† family is led by a mother, and she is likely to be subject to societal norms that diminish her ability to earn as much as her male counterparts (increased poverty— which contributes to greater stress, diminished health, deprivation, etc. ). The functionalist would argue that the distressing results found in these families are also necessary outcomes, as society must not reward those who seek to disrupt the social order.This functionalist attitude is very evident in current American political discourse as a number of far right-wing conservative politicians are introducing and passing legislation that reflects their fundamentalist Christian ideals in which patriarchal values that limit the â€Å"individual aspirations† of women to control their own reproductio n. The traditional family consists of a bread-winning father and a home-making mother, an ideal that is held sacrosanct by this group of legislators.The conflict theorist, by contrast, seeks to discover the constructs in society and within the family that cause the inequalities, rather than to blame the inequalities on those who are trapped by them for not conforming to the functionalist ideals. Families are continuing to evolve— at least the definition is— in that there is increasing acceptance— both social and legal— for families in which the primary adults are a same-sex couple, either with or without offspring.The battle of ideologies still rages on in the United States, although an increasing number of states  have extended legal status to families of this type. In Canada, the Civil Marriage Act was passed in 2005 and after a brief re-vote in 2007— which defeated the Conservative motion to restore the traditional definition of marriageâ€⠀ marriage equality became a non-issue (politically) when the prime minister announced his government would not bring it up again (Makarenko, 2007). Family as a Societal Institution The family serves a functional purpose in society in that it provides the environment for producing, nurturing, and socializing the next generation.However, the nature of family has changed significantly and some of the new styles of families— single parent families, cohabiting unions, same-sex intimate partnerships, egalitarian marriages, and blended families— contradict the societal norms representative in a traditional patriarchal family. Cherlin (2004) explains that the â€Å"weakening of social norms that define partners' behaviour† has deinstitutionalized marriage. The political and religious backlash is indicative of the conservative functionalist view of social stability being reliant upon maintaining the status quo. In fact, these conservatives are holding many of societies ills (e.g. , increased crime, debilitating poverty, sexual promiscuity, etc. ) as evidence that society is breaking down and traditional norms must be re-established in order to preserve order.The conflict theorists would argue that social norms are, in fact, the source of the dysfunctions in society. The solution is somewhere in between. The social norms that define family as an institution are likely problematic. The aspects of family that support and nurture intimate partners and children are vital to our continued well-being. In fact research suggests that the â€Å"symbolic significance† of marriage is still valued by individuals (Cherlin 2004).Family as a refuge, a safe place to grow, learn, and achieve, is an ideal that inspires us, but family as a tool of the state to perpetuate inequity is what makes it an institution. The functionalists are correct, the institutions are failing, but a new family paradigm is emerging. Family is more about the relationships and what members of families can do for each other, rather than what the unit can do for the state. Burgess and Locke (1945) argued that the family is moving away from â€Å"institution† and moving toward â€Å"companionship†. Perhaps it is time to let go of the functionalist  definition and embrace the research of the social internationalists â€Å"to understand the other person's symbols and meanings†¦ [and] approach common ground† (Hammond, 2009).Inglehart and Baker (2000) found evidence in their World Values Surveys— that included 65 societies that represented 75 percent of the world's population— that religious and traditional values continue to leave an imprint upon cultures but economic development is â€Å"associated with shifts away from absolute norms and values toward values that are increasingly rational, tolerant, trusting, and participatory.†Conclusion The modern definition of family is much too diverse to fit the functionalists' traditional paradigm as an institution designed to perpetuate social norms in order to maintain social stability. Some modern families are examples of contradictory norms and are held up as examples by conservatives as the very reason society is on the brink of chaos. However, it is unlikely that society is in fact in danger of a complete breakdown. The new families are actually indicative of a society that is moving into a new paradigm where diversity is embraced.Family is still valued and supported, but not as an institution that perpetuates social norms, but as a function that supports individual growth and security. The nature of this societal grouping is one of affection and security for all its members and as such will remain important and as long as families— of all types— are supported and sustained by society and by its members, the larger community will also benefit with the same stable society that the functionalists so adamantly wish to preserve. Sociological Theories About The Modern Family â€Å"The family is the most important institution in society. † This statement is repeated in almost every sociology text in some form or another. However, current trends suggest that there may be some inaccuracies in this claim. Family is indeed important and necessary. It can even be defined as very important, but its relationship to the term institutional may be problematic. The conflict is inherent in the definition of family based of the functionalists and the conflict theorists.Functionalist TheoryThis conservative, macro-level perspective emphasizes the role of family as a social institution that contributes to social stability. Carroll (2012) explains that the violence and terror of the French Revolution and the mass violence resulting from the desperate circumstances of the workers during the Industrial Revolution led to fears of the consequences of a crumbling social order. Out of this fear grew conservative intellectual writings that examined social bonds, rules, a nd socialization practices that enable society to maintain a sense of stability that benefits all members of society.Functional theorists warn of dire consequences if a strong society and effective socialization practices are not maintained. Carroll explains that Emile Durkheim, the French scholar who first presented this theory, suggested that society had a moral authority to â€Å"limit individual aspirations† in order to maintain norms and values and to limit social change in order to prevent social upheaval. Within this theory, family is seen as the institution that is responsible for socializing children, regulating sexual activity and reproduction, and provides its members with a social identity (Carroll, 2012).Conflict TheoryThis macro-level perspective focuses on the negative outcomes of societal norms, such as social inequality, and seeks to address and redress the aspects of society that perpetuate these undesirable norms. Carroll (2012) explains that this theory gr ew out of the works of Marx and Engels who believed that revolution was a necessary step for transforming a capitalist social order that enslaved the working class (the proletariat) to the ruling class (the bourgeoisie) and perpetuates poverty and misery for the enslaved.The primary conflict according to Marx and Engels is based on perpetuating social norms within a class system that benefits one class over another. Conflict theorists examine how the family unit is also an institution that perpetuates inequality, by reinforcing patriarchy, between members of the family and seeks to find solutions to reduce or eliminate these innate inequalities. Feminist theory, in particular, evaluates how gender inequality is perpetuated within the family as children are socialized to fulfil future social, political, and economic roles (Carroll, 2012).Symbolic-Internationalist TheoryA micro-perspective paradigm examines the meanings, interpretations, and understandings of the interactions of indiv iduals within a society. While this type of theory does not contribute to evaluating and solving social issues such as poverty, racism, sexism, or social change, it does allow a context for understanding the nature of institutions, such as the family, within the macro-perspective theories. Social order is transmitted through symbols— roles, behaviours, and other social constructions— that are integrated as a result of social interactions (Carroll, 2012).Although this is a micro-theoretical paradigm, understanding the interactions, communication, symbols, and expectations could contribute to alleviating the clash between the two macro-level theories. Understanding what works and what does not work permits opportunities to change or delete the aspects of family or family dynamics that contributes to inequality, without dismantling the entire institution and causing complete social upheaval.The Changing Nature of Family O'Neill (2002) evaluates the â€Å"fatherless famil y† and provides ample statistics to show that the breakdown of the traditional family of father,  mother, and offspring— due to increasing divorce and out-of-wedlock reproduction— is correlated with poverty, emotional, psychological, and heath problems, and interaction problems with children for lone mothers; health issues or increased engagement in high risk behaviours for non-resident fathers; poverty, deprivation, school troubles, more health problems, and increased risk of abuse for children who do not live with their biological fathers. Her conclusion that these issues are the result of the breakdown of the family is an example of functionalist theory.She suggests that the outcomes are the result of the social breakdown of a vital social institution. A conflict theorist would more than likely suggest a different reason for the observed dysfunctions outlined by O'Neill (2002). The symbolic-internationalist would provide very specific context of the nature o f the interactions within the families described by O'Neill and may find that the dysfunctions are not the result of resistance to socialized norms, but in fact due to conformity.The â€Å"fatherless† family is led by a mother, and she is likely to be subject to societal norms that diminish her ability to earn as much as her male counterparts (increased poverty— which contributes to greater stress, diminished health, deprivation, etc. ). The functionalist would argue that the distressing results found in these families are also necessary outcomes, as society must not reward those who seek to disrupt the social order.This functionalist attitude is very evident in current American political discourse as a number of far right-wing conservative politicians are introducing and passing legislation that reflects their fundamentalist Christian ideals in which patriarchal values that limit the â€Å"individual aspirations† of women to control their own reproduction. The traditional family consists of a bread-winning father and a home-making mother, an ideal that is held sacrosanct by this group of legislators.The conflict theorist, by contrast, seeks to discover the constructs in society and within the family that cause the inequalities, rather than to blame the inequalities on those who are trapped by them for not conforming to the functionalist ideals. Families are continuing to evolve— at least the definition is— in that there is increasing acceptance— both social and legal— for families in which the primary adults are a same-sex couple, either with or without offspring.The battle of ideologies still rages on in the United States, although an increasing number of states  have extended legal status to families of this type. In Canada, the Civil Marriage Act was passed in 2005 and after a brief re-vote in 2007— which defeated the Conservative motion to restore the traditional definition of marriage— marr iage equality became a non-issue (politically) when the prime minister announced his government would not bring it up again (Makarenko, 2007). Family as a Societal Institution The family serves a functional purpose in society in that it provides the environment for producing, nurturing, and socializing the next generation.However, the nature of family has changed significantly and some of the new styles of families— single parent families, cohabiting unions, same-sex intimate partnerships, egalitarian marriages, and blended families— contradict the societal norms representative in a traditional patriarchal family. Cherlin (2004) explains that the â€Å"weakening of social norms that define partners' behaviour† has deinstitutionalized marriage. The political and religious backlash is indicative of the conservative functionalist view of social stability being reliant upon maintaining the status quo.In fact, these conservatives are holding many of societies ills (e .  g. , increased crime, debilitating poverty, sexual promiscuity, etc. ) as evidence that society is breaking down and traditional norms must be re-established in order to preserve order. The conflict theorists would argue that social norms are, in fact, the source of the dysfunctions in society. The solution is somewhere in between. The social norms that define family as an institution are likely problematic. The aspects of family that support and nurture intimate partners and children are vital to our continued well-being. In fact research suggests that the â€Å"symbolic significance† of marriage is still valued by individuals (Cherlin 2004).Family as a refuge, a safe place to grow, learn, and achieve, is an ideal that inspires us, but family as a tool of the state to perpetuate inequity is what makes it an institution. The functionalists are correct, the institutions are failing, but a new family paradigm is emerging. Family is more about the relationships and what mem bers of families can do for each other, rather than what the unit can do for the state. Burgess and Locke (1945) argued that the family is moving away from â€Å"institution† and moving toward â€Å"companionship†.Perhaps it is time to let go of the functionalist  definition and embrace the research of the social internationalists â€Å"to understand the other person's symbols and meanings†¦ [and] approach common ground† (Hammond, 2009). Inglehart and Baker (2000) found evidence in their World Values Surveys— that included 65 societies that represented 75 percent of the world's population— that religious and traditional values continue to leave an imprint upon cultures but economic development is â€Å"associated with shifts away from absolute norms and values toward values that are increasingly rational, tolerant, trusting, and participatory.†ConclusionThe modern definition of family is much too diverse to fit the functionalists' tra ditional paradigm as an institution designed to perpetuate social norms in order to maintain social stability. Some modern families are examples of contradictory norms and are held up as examples by conservatives as the very reason society is on the brink of chaos. However, it is unlikely that society is in fact in danger of a complete breakdown. The new families are actually indicative of a society that is moving into a new paradigm where diversity is embraced.Family is still valued and supported, but not as an institution that perpetuates social norms, but as a function that supports individual growth and security. The nature of this societal grouping is one of affection and security for all its members and as such will remain important and as long as families— of all types— are supported and sustained by society and by its members, the larger community will also benefit with the same stable society that the functionalists so adamantly wish to preserve.